History Lessons

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History Lesson 1 - Jumbo

We heard the many stories of government actions with questionable results.  Most are well known and provide a good laugh, but there are a few that only see the light of day after all the parties are long gone.

As preparations for the first nuclear weapon test (code-named "Trinity") proceeded in 1944, General Leslie Groves, the head of the Manhattan Project, began to worry about what would happen if the test was a failure.  Remember that was a new and unknown science, and even that "experts" could not agree if it would even work.  A few had suggested that the test would set the atmosphere on fire.  With a very limited supply of plutonium then available, a failure could scatter tens of millions of dollars of the precious element across the New Mexico desert.  To avoid this problem, a massive steel vessel to contain the detonator explosion was built at a cost of $142 million (1945 dollars).  Nicknamed "Jumbo," the container weighed 214 tons, was 25 feet long, 12 feet wide, and had walls 14 inches thick.

 

Caterpillar tractors haul "Jumbo" across

the New Mexico desert, May 1945

 

 

 

 

 

If the device did not work, then the plan was to recover the fissionable material from the walls of the container.  Should the test be successful, it was theorized that "Jumbo" would be vaporized.  As the reactors at the Hanford Reservation began to produce greater quantities of plutonium and calculations lessened the chance of a fizzle, Jumbo was abandoned.  It was erected on the steel tower 800 yards from ground zero and exposed to the July 16, 1945, Trinity test.  "Jumbo" came through unscathed, only needed a new coat of paint.  So much for the vaporization theory.

"Jumbo" was at the time the heaviest item ever shipped by rail; several of the trestles between the plant in Ohio where it was manufactured and the Trinity site were damaged by its great weight and had to be rebuilt. In 1946, the Army detonated eight 500-pound bombs in the bottom of the sealed vessel, blowing both ends off but leaving much of the middle intact.  (destroying the evidence?).  The remains of Jumbo were moved outside the fence around the test site in 1979.  Today, it resembles a massive segment of pipe, 10 feet in diameter.

Now, If "Jumbo" had been used, we could have invented the world's biggest hand grenade,  Or placed the first object in orbit, or downtown Los Vegas.  Sometimes it is better to be lucky than good.

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History Lesson 2 -

Just Because It Can Be Done, Doesn't Mean That It Has To Be Done

Prior to World War I, the British were planning a future generation of super battleships to maintain their place in the world order; battleships being the strategic weapon of the era.  As part of this program, a new class of naval guns were proposed.  In these days it took years longer to design and build the armament, then to build the actual ships so scheduling was important.  These proposed guns were not just bigger, better versions of the current guns.  They were the "Dirty Harry" gun for big ships.  18" 40 caliber (18" diameter 3300 pound shells x really long barrels x magnum powder charge),  In the end, these guns were less than successful.  Barrel wear was incredible. At the same time, the First Sea Lord proposed a new class of fast ships.  His theory was that speed was more important than armor protection.  The light battle cruiser (or large light cruiser) which was very fast (30 knots), with minimal armor protection, and under-armed with small (4 inch) defective guns.  These provided to be useless and were considered suitable only as 20,00 ton paper weights. What to do with these white elephants?  If you have a useless ship and a bad gun, it only makes seen to mount the big gun on the little ship.  Two bad ideas just might make a good result. The navy mounted the gun in an old heavy turret.  It was planned to place two of these on the little cruiser, but caution dictated that only one be tried.  They trotted this puppy out, and test fired the combination.  This resulted in the crew adopting new language previously unknown, and a visit to the ship yard for repairs.  It was suggested that the little ship was nearly scared to death. After a short time they converted the ship to their first air craft carrier.  but that is another story.

Note deck damage.  Apparently firing broadside was not a good idea.

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History Lesson 3 - Streamedlined Bait

During October 1944, the cruisers USS Canberra CA-70, and USS Houston, CL-81, were torpedoed off the island of Formosa, and heavily damaged.  With both ships in danger of sinking and being further attacked by the Japanese, they were taken under tow making the grand speed of four knots.  Unable to defend themselves, they were provided an escort of two light aircraft carriers, a heavy cruiser, a light cruiser, and five destroyers screening the damages ships.  This mixed bag of war ships was promptly labeled “Cripple Division One”.

Admiral “Bull” Halsey, commanders of task force 38, had absolute hatred of his Japanese enemy, and would use every means in his effort to destroy them.  Thus he conceived of a plan to use “Cripple Division One” as "bait" to draw out the Japanese naval forces in the area.  Dangling the “bait” close the Japanese forces, he kept the main forces of his Third Fleet just over the horizon waiting to engage his opponent.  It was hoped that the enemy might be tempted to send out a major portion of their surface fleet in an attempt to clean up what they believed to be the remnants of Halsey's force.  It would be no fun for the ships involved, since they would be certain to have a sky full of enemy planes buzzing around them night and day as long as they were in flying range of Formosa. For several days following initial attack, the escorts shielded the wounded cruisers from the pressing attempts of the Japanese to sink them.

The Japanese fleet did not come out of hiding, although it poked its nose for a brief look-see at one time.  But the enemy air force was out-in numbers.  Halsey's plan almost worked as it was drawn up, with a majority of the attacking enemy aircraft destroyed and the damaged cruisers safely escorted to the Carolinas.  There was some official regret that, inasmuch as the enemy fleet had failed to come out, "the fishing was poor, considering the quality of the bait".

This was not a big event in the war in the Pacific.  Nor was this the first time or last time that Halsey risked major elements of his fleet and thousands of lives to pursue the enemy or a personal agenda.  Even after being reprimanded for other questionable actions, he was considered too valuable to be removed from command.  At a time when this country was more focused on the events in Europe, and press censorship was total, it was considered more important to project our superior leaders and victories.  It wasn’t until long after the World War Two that many of these classified events were finally published.  Today it would be unthinkable for a commander to risk his men as bait.

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History Lesson 4 - Boat Anchors

In the years between the American Civil War and World War I, technology proceeded at a slower rate than currently demanded. Limited by the ability to manufacture durable metal, and to scenically engineer innovations being proposed, the limitations of the then current technology were pushed to the limits.  Case in point, the British developed advanced iron capitol ships to protect their far-flung interests.  The 325 foot long, 10,500 ton HMS Benbow serves as good example of how to float an anvil.  Built in the late 1880, she was part of a class of ships protected by 18 inches of iron armor and mounting 13.5-inch wire wound guns.  On a good day, she could make 17 knots, but not for very long.

Riding so low in the water, any weather would put water over the main deck making seasickness a common complaint as the ship rolled in anything but a smooth sea.  The main weapons had a life expectancy of 70 rounds making target practice out of the questions since it took two or more ears to manufacture replacements.  The guns were protected by 11-inch thick barbettes, which are a form of circular open top armored walls.  The guns could only be destroyed by a direct hit, but the gun crews were extremely venerable.  Extra gun crews (and shovels) were provided for backup.  It wasn’t until 1906, HMS Dreadnought was launched that any-significant design improvement was made.

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History Lesson 5 - Solomon Andrew Layton

A little Oklahoma history.  From 1902 until his death in 1943, Solomon Andrew Layton practiced architecture in central Oklahoma.  During this period, he designed more than 100 major pubic educational and commercial buildings, the majority of which still remain.  Layton can described as the major designer of territorial and early statehood days, and as one of the most important and influential architects in Oklahoma's history.  Known as a gentleman, civic leader and demanding worker, he also  provided personal educational assistance to promising students, and had numerous other charitable activities.

A brief list of his buildings that you would be familiar with include

Oklahoma State Capitol Governor's Mansion

Oklahoma Historical Society Building

Oklahoma County Courthouse

Masonic Consistory (Guthrie)

Skirvin Hotel

Central High School

Classen/Capitol Hill High Schools

Taft Junior High School

Oklahoma Gas and Electric Co. Building (1928)

Southwestern Bell Telephone Building

Mid Continent Life Building

Shrine  Auditorium  (former Journal Record Building)

The works of Solomon Andrew Layton are probably not foremost in your mind.  Oklahoma is a state with a very short history that has few tangible links to the early statehood years and its development to the present day.  Many of these buildings represent a community changing from a small town or small businesses to a city with major companies serving its growth.  Built in the classic style of the period, you will not see similar buildings in the future.  These are well designed, handsome buildings with a distinctive appearance.  Building decoration was an accepted part of the construction budget in the 1920's and 30's.  Today that would be considered wasteful unless you have an enlightened client.  Oklahoma City has no great plans to preserve its past, just waiting for the next commercial venture to be presented needing something shinny and new.  The late former mayor George H. Shirk tried to steer the city away from this attitude in the early 70's, but had little effect on the rebuilding plans under way.  Many of these small jewels are threatened, and once they are gone, they are gone forever.

This could apply to any city or town.  If you can't recognize your hometown after 10, 20 or 30 years; ask yourself if the "improvements" better your community, and if they make you want to live there.

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History Lesson 6 - Beauvias

In Europe, the church was inspired to build the great gothic cathedrals.  I am sure that you have seen pictures of Chatres, Bourges, Norte Dame – Paris, but there were others that were never completed.  Construction could take hundreds of years, and bankrupt a region.  These were massive structures built entirely of stone, glass and wood.  The exterior walls were slender curtains of glass accented with stone tracing.  Lacking proper engineering and quality control, success depended on trail and error, and on the skill of the craftsmen who built each piece one at a time.  Structural failure was an accepted part the construction process.  Many of these fragile buildings exceeded the ability of the materials and people to deliver what was promised.

Case in point is the Cathedral of St. Paul at small French town of Beavias.  The choir of Beauvias Cathedral was begun around 1220,  It was enormous in width and height – 157 feet to the vault – and was very slow in building.  (Approximately 13 stories to the arched ceiling)  For comparison, the height at the nave of National Cathedral – Washington, D.C. is only 102 feet if you have seen it.  By 1240, only the ambulatory and chapels were finished.  In 1284 some of the newly built choir vault collapsed, and the choir was reconstructed and consolidated with additional piers.  The transepts were erected in the sixteenth century, but in 1573 the 500-foot crossing spire collapsed.   (Approximately 40 stories)  The naïve was never built, thus only half of the planned church was ever started.

Beauvias was planned to be the grandest of the French high gothic cathedrals.  In the end, it was the last attempted/  Neither the town nor the region had the resources to complete such an ambitious project.  Today, the church still dominates this small rural town.

Because cameras can't take in the volume of the central nave spaces, photographs can give the appearance of dark foreboding places.  In fact, the glass area floods the interior with light, and the ceilings can only be seen with difficulty making the walls seem to reach the sky.

Last fact:  Maintenance nightmares - Big Time!

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History Lesson 7 - Ballistics

During the recent DC sniper attacks, the news media generated volumes on the destructive force of the .223 caliber bullet used in the ambushes.  This is the common caliber family for most of the world's military rifles, but pales in comparison to the common infantry weapon of the American Civil War.

Typical of the period was the .58 caliber muzzle loading rifle firing a hollow based soft lead bullet.  When fired, the base of the bullet expanded engaging the barrel rifling allowing greater velocity and range with good accuracy for the day.  Weighing several ounces, these projectiles could reach hundred of yards, and infect great damage.  If you were unlucky enough to be on the receiving end, and were not killed outright, the bullet would deform on impact, shattering bones and tearing large wounds in its victim. The volume of wounded, and the skills of the battlefield doctors, did not offer a lot of hope for survival.

Having fired a similar caliber weapon, they do not have as brutal recoil as one might suspect.  Only about three rounds a minute was possible, so having cover during reloading was important. While not the ideal home defense firearm, it would effectively dispatch your standard burglar.

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History Lesson 8 - J Boats

Currently the semi-final races to determine the America's Cup Challenger are being run.  The AC class boats in these series are much more impressive then the previous small 12-meter yachts, but they lack the majesty of the pre-WWII "J" class boats.

Financed and skippered by "amateur" owners and crewed by approximately 30+ skilled professional sailors, these were so expensive to construct and operate that only one boat each was built by the challenger and defender.  The last American defender boat, Ranger, was 136 feet long, and may have been the fastest sailing yacht ever built.  The current AC boats are around 80 feet long.

Sailing these huge boats was an adventure, but less dangerous than the previous cup boats,  In the days before carbon fiber, masts, booms and standing rigging were steel, and did break when pushed to the limits. The J class races have been considered some of the best in the long history,  Unfortunately the 19030's still and movie media could not cover the event as television can today.

Awesome.  "This is the most common adjective that is used by those who have sailed on the existing J's. The immense sail area and sheer power cannot easily be described. Also the speed, slicing effortlessly like a knife through butter and their ability to turn almost in their own length."

Rainbow (1934)

There were never more than a dozen ever built, and today only three exist.  None is American.  One was owned by an American, but was not a contender (Velsheda).  When WWII started, privately owned yachts were taken over by the U.S. Navy and Coast Guard, and converted to coastal defense vessels or auxiliaries.  Crewed by volunteers, and with few or no weapons, they formed the "hooligan" navy, and served as "trip wires" for submarine or other imagined attacks.  Ownership of these private boats was considered in bad taste by the government, these were returned after the was with the thanks of the nation by little else.  Most were butchered to fulfill various needs.  Yachts considered useless to the war effort were broken up for the metals in their hulls over the protests of their owners. Velsheda was based in England, and discovered in 1984 marooned on a mud bank being used as a house boat.  The remaining two (Shamrock V and Endeavour) were stored in England and largely forgotten.  All were saved from demolition, and extensively restored.  Thus we have no examples of any of the historic per-war America's Cup defenders built and raced by this county.  A modern replica of Ranger is being built in Demark as a charter boat, but will retain only the general appearance.  By contrast, all of the post war boats to the current defenders still exist, and sailed regularly.

Endeavour I (1934 challenger)

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History Lesson 9 - USS Oklahoma

Last December, I posted a brief history lesson on the battleship USS Oklahoma during the 60th anniversary of the pearl harbor attack.  (Msg No. 9876)  Once again this year, much has been recently televised concerning the December 7th event, but little on our state namesake.  The sinking of this major naval unit was as devastating as the loss of the Arizona; and it's subsequent raising was truly heroic.  Had it remained in position on battleship row, it would have shared the present site as a national memorial.

Surprisingly, there is no memorial at the either the Arizona memorial, or at the point where it was sunk at the battleship row quays.  Eight years ago, I had time to visit the site, and asked one of the memorial docents about the Oklahoma, but other then general information, few answers could be provided. I understand that some of the remaining survivors are trying to correct this, but time is running out.

The navy intended to return every ship sunken at Pearl Harbor to active duty.  The cost to raise the Oklahoma, combined with the estimated cost to return an obsolete ship to duty, was far too great.  Millions were spent on the other attack survivors as a symbol, and no accurate accounting has ever been provided.  After the war, the navy wanted to clear the remaining ships from the anchorage, but congress would not appropriate the money.  In 1962, the navy was authorized to establish the Arizona as a war memorial.

It is also not well known that there is a second battleship wreck still at Pearl Harbor.  The USS Utah (BB31/AG16) was torpedoed and capsized on the west side of Ford Island.  This ship had been decommissioned under the Washington Naval Treaty, and converted to a target ship/anti-aircraft training ship.  There is a memorial, but access is restricted.  Surprising since this is one of the two national memorial site at Pearl Harbor (The Arizona being the other).

Another little known fact is that the navy did start extensive salvage work on the Arizona removing superstructure, guns, ammunition, etc.  The superstructure is stored on Ford Island, but requires special permission to visit.  The remaining amount of bunker oil or explosives remaining on the ship is not known.

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History Lesson 10 - Langley's Aerodrome No. 5

Many of you have enjoyed the recent television documentaries observing the 100^th anniversary of the Wright Brother’s historic first flight (December 17, 1903), and the replica being built as part of the ceremonies. What is not well covered is the Wright’s chief rival, Samuel Pierpont Langley (1834-1906), who was a leading scientific figure in the United States in the latter nineteenth century. Langley became the third Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution in 1887. In 1891, Langley began work aimed at designing a flying machine. based on his theoretical aerodynamic research. After failures with designs that were too fragile and under-powered, he developed several successful models. In 1896, Langley's Aerodrome No. 5 made the first successful flight of an unpiloted, engine-driven, heavier-than-air craft of substantial size. Langley's aeronautical experiments appeared to have concluded with these successful flights, but privately he intended to raise funds to begin work on a full-scale, human-carrying aircraft. He believed his only real hope of securing the kind of funding necessary was from the federal government.  The breakthrough came when a friend and colleague offered to present the proposal to President McKinley. A grant of $50,000 from the Board of Ordnance and Fortification was approved for Langley to construct a full-sized aircraft. The outbreak of the Spanish-American War only five days earlier contributed to the panel's favorable and speedy decision.

Work on the airplane, referred to as the Great Aerodrome, or Aerodrome A, began in Late 1898. Langley's approach was merely to scale up the unpiloted Aerodromes of 1896 to human-carrying proportions. This would prove to be a grave error, as the aerodynamics, structural design, and control system of the smaller aircraft were not adaptable to a full-sized version. An exact scale miniature, known as the Quarter-scale Aerodrome, flew satisfactorily twice in 1901, and again with an improved engine in 1903. The construction details and distribution of stresses on the Aerodrome A were based on the successful performance of this gasoline-powered model. Langley was far more concerned with producing a suitable engine for his large craft. In time, a water-cooled radial that generated a remarkable 52.4 horsepower with a power-to-weight ratio of 4 lb per horsepower was produced, an amazing achievement for the time. In comparison, the Wright Flyer engine produced 12 horsepower. The airframe was an entirely different matter; it was structurally unsound. The design was a tandem-winged design with a cruciform tail. The control system was minimal and was poorly conceived. The tail moved only in the vertical plane, and acted more like a modern trim tab to stabilize the flight path, rather than as an elevator for positive pitch control inputs. There was a separate rudder, but it was mounted centrally on the airplane, the position where it would be least effective. For propulsion, two pusher propellers, mounted between the tandem wings, were driven by shafts and gears connected to the centrally-mounted engine. The huge aircraft spanned nearly 50 ft and was more than 52 ft long. It weighed 750 lb including the pilot.

The first test flight of the Aerodrome A was on October 7, 1903. The airplane was assembled on the rear of a catapult track mounted on a large house-boat .Immediately after launching, the Aerodrome plunged into the river at a forty-five-degree angle. The airplane's structure was crushed when it hit the water. The press howled with laughter. The much-touted flying machine had slipped into the water "like a handful of mortar." Langley was bitterly disappointed and rationalized the failure as a problem with the launch mechanism, not the aircraft.

After repairs, a second attempt was made on December 8, 1903. This time the houseboat launching platform was located on the Potomac River in Washington, D.C. The results were equally disastrous. Just after takeoff, the Aerodrome A reared up, collapsed upon itself, and smashed into the water, momentarily trapping the pilot underneath the wreckage in the freezing Potomac before he was rescued, unhurt. Langley again blamed the launching device. While the catapult likely contributed some small part to the failure, there is no denying that the Aerodrome A was an overly complex, structurally weak, aerodynamically unsound aircraft. This second crash of the Aerodrome A ended the aeronautical work of Samuel Langley.

Just over one week later, the Wrights flew at Kitty Hawk and won the race for the air. Langley’s mistake was in scaling up his small models without accounting for the fact that on the full-sized plane, drag would be increased exponentially. The Wrights started with full-sized gliders and had flown them for years. Langley request to the Board of Ordnance and Fortification for further funding was refused and he suffered much public ridicule.

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But that is not all of the story. The Smithsonian Secretary assembled a devoted team, a remarkable engine and a plane that wouldn't fly. Embarrassment from the failures caused the Smithsonian to protect its reputation. The Wright Brother’s achievement was not recognized.

The remains of the Aerodrome A were left with the Smithsonian Institution by the War Department. In 1914, the Smithsonian contracted Glenn Curtiss, a prominent American aviation pioneer and aircraft manufacturer, to rebuild the Langley Aerodrome A and conduct further flight tests. With significant modifications and improvements, Curtiss was able to coax the Aerodrome A into the air for a number of brief, straight-line flights. After the tests, the airplane was returned to the Smithsonian, restored to its original unsuccessful 1903 configuration, and put on public display in 1918. Smithsonian officials misleadingly identified the Aerodrome A in its label text as the world's first airplane "capable of sustained free flight."  The Aerodrome A had, indeed, existed before the Wright brothers' successful 1903 Flyer, but it only flew much later and even then in heavily modified form, making the Smithsonian claim inappropriate at best. This action was, partly, what prompted Orville Wright in 1928 to lend the 1903 Flyer to the Science Museum in London as a gesture of protest regarding the Smithsonian's seeming unwillingness to give him and his brother, Wilbur, full credit for having invented the airplane. The Smithsonian finally clarified the history of the Aerodrome A and its later flight testing in its 1942 annual report, satisfying Orville, and thereby clearing the way for the return of the Wright Flyer to the United States and its donation to the Smithsonian in 1948. The Aerodrome A continued to be displayed in the Smithsonian's Arts and Industries building with a revised label until 1971, when it was removed from public exhibition and restored again by the restoration staff.

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History Lesson 11 - Fort Drum, Manila Bay

It has never been unusual for the government to develop policies and not fully inform the public. At the turn of the century, the United States began to protect the sea route to its strategically important naval basis in Manila bay.

The majority of the population didn’t favor military expenditures outside the county, and the extent of overseas installations were not generally known. Between 1904 and 1919, positions for heavy coastal artillery were installed along the coast line at the entrance to the bay. However there was a gap in the artillery coverage which required construction of an intermediate position between the existing fortifications. After exploring numerous engineering solutions, it was determined that an existing small rock  island (El Fraile) could be used as the foundation for the proposed construction. In April, 1909, the island was blasted down to the waterline, and army engineers constructed a reinforced concrete battleship 350 feet long by 144 feet wide, with the top deck 40 feet above mean low water and 20 feet thick. Exterior walls were approximately 25 feet to 36 feet thick. Completed in 1918, the fortification was equipped with four14in guns in armored turrets, 4 casemated 6in guns and a 60ft fire control cage mast. Cost of construction was estimated to be 3.8 million dollars (1918 dollars), excluding armaments. The fort was considered impregnable to enemy attack.

This was considered an excessive large budget for a single military construction project, and the real amount was hidden in congressional budgets. It was assumed that west coast ports would demand similar fortification projects. Although coastal batteries were installed on the west coast, they never approached the level of protection provided a many foreign bases.

 Prior to World War II, anti-aircraft protect was added, as well as other improvements. After the invasion of the Philippines in December 1941, all attacks by the Japanese air force and artillery were unsuccessful. During defense of the fortification, nearly 700 hits of medium and heavy caliber artillery shells were registered without significant damage. On 6 May 1942, Fort Drum surrendered on the orders of General Wainwright, and the personnel became part of the death march.

Congressional investigations questioned why the fort had been surrendered (no food, water or ammunition). And even asked why it hadn’t been towed from the war zone (if it looks like a boat, it has to float).

The fort was held by the Japanese  until April 1945. Unsure of the effectiveness of the fort’s existing weapons, it was shelled by naval forces. Army troops attacked the fort dumping kerosene, explosives and phosphorus shells down ventilator shafts and stairways. Withdrawing to a safe distance, this was detonated killing the Japanese defenders (an under-statement). During the news coverage of the day, the fort was referred to as a Japanese installation, and no mention was made of its surrender. The fortress still lies abandoned as it was since 1945. There is no public access to interior. For many years, it was used by drug smugglers and Philippine rebels.

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History Lesson 13 - The Davy Crockett

After World War 2, the nuclear weapon was going to save the United States from future wars, and guarantee that we would never again need the massive armed forces required to fight previous wars. There was some speculation that we could eliminate most of the military and its expense. All military branches were feeling the pressure of being downsized, and were developing new weapons to insure their continued existence as an atomic force. With all new technologies, there is a period of exploration on how to properly use it. Thus there were many proposals for the best applications, both peaceful and for warfare. Many were proposed by the lunatic fringe, including the nuclear powered ramjet cruise missile that would have sprayed radiation over the landscape.

The army developed a mobile tactical 280mm (about 11") "atomic" canon in the early fifties that could deliver a 15-kiliton weapon at approximately 18 miles. Weighting 83 tons and requiring a large support organization, this glamorous weapon was obsolete when introduced. Never the less, twenty were made at great expense, and served until the early sixties.

Realizing that it needed a more practical weapon, the army developed the man portable Davy Crockett. This small unit weapon consisted of an atomic projectile launched from either a 120mm or 155mm recoilless rifle, both common "bazooka" style firing mechanisms in the inventory of the day. The 120mm had a range of 1¼ mile, while the 155mm had a range of 2½ miles. The warhead assembly weighed 76 pounds, was 30 inches long and 11 inches in diameter.

The explosive part of the warhead used on the Davy Crockett weighed just 51 pounds and was the smallest and lightest fission bomb (implosion type) ever deployed by the United States, with a variable explosive yield of 10 – 20 tons of TNT. The 10-ton version could destroy a two-block area. This would be approximately two to four times as powerful as the ammonium nitrate bomb that destroyed the Alfred P. Murrah federal building. The Davy Crockett was deployed with U.S. Army forces from 1961 to 1971. Between 1956 and 1963, 2,100 were produced at an estimated cost (excluding the warhead) of $540 million.

This weapon was not popular with the troops, and it is unlikely that it would have been used except as a weapon of last resort. With an effect range of 1500–2000 yards and a potential blast radius of 3000 yards, taking cover immediately after firing was a necessity. Commanders didn’t trust putting nuclear weapons in the hands of the troops. Troops didn’t like the idea of carrying a nuclear weapon into battle. And since this was a tactical battlefield weapon, there was the chance of it being captured and turned against us.

Although the weapon system was questionable, the warhead has been used for a variety of applications by every branch of the U.S. armed forces. Built in versions up to 1–kiloton, the warhead is considered small enough to be deployed as a SADM (Special Atomic Demolition Munition) or so called "Backpack Nuke". It was the closest thing the U.S. is known to have to developed to a so-called "suitcase bomb".

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